EARLY THOUGHT ON CRIMINALS
In earlier times, judges often thought they could tell a suspect’s guilt from how they behaved when confronted by accusers. They thought that a guilty person would confess under torture, while God would give an innocent person strength to resist the pain. In Europe from about the 17th century such ideas were gradually abandoned, and evidence was studied more systematically. This trend accelerated with the growth of scientific knowledge in the 19th century.
Greeks formalised their beliefs, such as close-set eyes indicating that someone is untrustworthy, into the 'science' of physiognomy. Predictably, this was abused; in Socrates's trial, his facial features were cited as evidence of his brutal nature. Physiognomy classifies each facial element and links it to a personality trait. Curved eyebrows mean someone is friendly by nature; angled eyebrows signify someone who is always seeking to control. Everything means something.
By the 19th century, this technique was being used to fight crime. An Italian professor, Cesare Lombroso, wrote his definitive book L'Uomo Delinquente or "Criminal Man" in 1876. This was supposedly based on a statistical study of the features of convicts compared to those of (presumably honest) soldiers. Lombroso claimed that certain features indicated particular types of criminal. Murderers have prominent jaws, and pickpockets have scanty beards (unless they shave?). A one-sided grin marks brutality. Lombroso's technique was widely used in Europe until the 1930s. Prosecuting lawyers could claim that a flattened nose was a scientifically proven sign of a thief, thus strengthening their case.
Greeks formalised their beliefs, such as close-set eyes indicating that someone is untrustworthy, into the 'science' of physiognomy. Predictably, this was abused; in Socrates's trial, his facial features were cited as evidence of his brutal nature. Physiognomy classifies each facial element and links it to a personality trait. Curved eyebrows mean someone is friendly by nature; angled eyebrows signify someone who is always seeking to control. Everything means something.
By the 19th century, this technique was being used to fight crime. An Italian professor, Cesare Lombroso, wrote his definitive book L'Uomo Delinquente or "Criminal Man" in 1876. This was supposedly based on a statistical study of the features of convicts compared to those of (presumably honest) soldiers. Lombroso claimed that certain features indicated particular types of criminal. Murderers have prominent jaws, and pickpockets have scanty beards (unless they shave?). A one-sided grin marks brutality. Lombroso's technique was widely used in Europe until the 1930s. Prosecuting lawyers could claim that a flattened nose was a scientifically proven sign of a thief, thus strengthening their case.
Cesare Lombroso
Cesare Lombroso claimed that to the trained eye, the eye of the detective, these people would clearly be organised in categories.
GROUP A - All shoplifters
GROUP B - Swindlers
GROUP H - Purse Snatchers
Group E - Murderers
He believed that people could be categorised. Supposedly you could see a man's real character at a glance. Lombroso often spoke of the fact that his fellow Europeans were skeptical about his work.
He took comfort from the fact that Americans loved it. His work was far more influential in the United States than anywhere else.
GROUP A - All shoplifters
GROUP B - Swindlers
GROUP H - Purse Snatchers
Group E - Murderers
He believed that people could be categorised. Supposedly you could see a man's real character at a glance. Lombroso often spoke of the fact that his fellow Europeans were skeptical about his work.
He took comfort from the fact that Americans loved it. His work was far more influential in the United States than anywhere else.
what does a criminal look like
If necessary police create a likely picture of an offender, based on eyewitness accounts. Using paint-by-number face composite computer programs, sketches, and photo composites, witnesses are able to choose appropriate facial hair, eyes, skin and hair colour and facial build to create a picture that resembles who they witnessed.
Forensic artists can help find and convict criminals, locate missing people and discover the identity of unknown bodies. They do this by producing sketches, computer images and even sculptures.
Police were able to capture this criminal using an Identikit.
Forensic artists can help find and convict criminals, locate missing people and discover the identity of unknown bodies. They do this by producing sketches, computer images and even sculptures.
Police were able to capture this criminal using an Identikit.
line ups
Line Ups involve known suspects standing in a line while a witness walks along the line and chooses those who they remember being responsible for the crime, based on memory of height and appearance. The witness is not visible to the suspects due to reflective glass, which allows the witness to see through the glass, but only allows those on the other side to see a mirror reflection.
Line-ups are an effective method of identification if suspects are known, but when they are not known, another approach involving mug shots is taken. A witness peruses a series of mug shots of previous offenders to try and pick out a suspect, if one is present. The drawbacks to this method is mainly the fact that it's more suited to small communities, where there is a small enough number of offenders for a witness to view every mug shot. Also, as the witness is only viewing previously offending criminals, an incorrect choice can lead police to an innocent ex-offender.
TRADITIONAL EYEWITNESS IDENTIFICATION PRACTICES - AND PROBLEMS
• In a standard lineup, the lineup co-ordinator usually knows who the suspect is. Research shows that co-ordinator often provide unintentional cues to the eyewitness about which person to pick from the lineup.
• In a standard lineup, an eyewitness is shown individuals or photographs simultaneously. Research shows that this tends to lead eyewitnesses to choose a lineup member based upon a relative judgment (who looks most like the perpetrator), rather than basing the identification on his or her own mental image of the perpetrator.
• In a standard lineup, without instructions from the administrator, the eyewitness often assumes that the perpetrator of the crime is one of those presented in the lineup. This often leads to the selection of a person despite doubts.
Line-ups are an effective method of identification if suspects are known, but when they are not known, another approach involving mug shots is taken. A witness peruses a series of mug shots of previous offenders to try and pick out a suspect, if one is present. The drawbacks to this method is mainly the fact that it's more suited to small communities, where there is a small enough number of offenders for a witness to view every mug shot. Also, as the witness is only viewing previously offending criminals, an incorrect choice can lead police to an innocent ex-offender.
TRADITIONAL EYEWITNESS IDENTIFICATION PRACTICES - AND PROBLEMS
• In a standard lineup, the lineup co-ordinator usually knows who the suspect is. Research shows that co-ordinator often provide unintentional cues to the eyewitness about which person to pick from the lineup.
• In a standard lineup, an eyewitness is shown individuals or photographs simultaneously. Research shows that this tends to lead eyewitnesses to choose a lineup member based upon a relative judgment (who looks most like the perpetrator), rather than basing the identification on his or her own mental image of the perpetrator.
• In a standard lineup, without instructions from the administrator, the eyewitness often assumes that the perpetrator of the crime is one of those presented in the lineup. This often leads to the selection of a person despite doubts.
FINGERPRINTING
Fingerprinting was first used in Ancient Babylon and Ancient China for business documents and signatures. However, the fact that all fingerprints are different wasn't discovered until the fourteenth century when an official in Persia was examining a government paper. This led to further investigations of fingerprinting and its uses.
Fingerprinting is used in forensic science, and has been for one hundred years.
Fingerprinting is used in forensic science, and has been for one hundred years.
ROBBERY
WHAT IS ROBBERY?
The basic definition of a robber is someone who compels a person to give up personal property, either through threats or the use of actual violence.
In R v Foster, the New South Wales Court of Criminal Appeal (NSWCCA) stated that: “the essence of robbery is that violence is done or threatened to the person of the owner or custodian who stands between the offender and the property stolen, in order to overcome that person’s resistance and so to oblige him to part with the property; in other words, the victim must be compelled by force or a fear to submit to the theft.”
The basic definition of a robber is someone who compels a person to give up personal property, either through threats or the use of actual violence.
In R v Foster, the New South Wales Court of Criminal Appeal (NSWCCA) stated that: “the essence of robbery is that violence is done or threatened to the person of the owner or custodian who stands between the offender and the property stolen, in order to overcome that person’s resistance and so to oblige him to part with the property; in other words, the victim must be compelled by force or a fear to submit to the theft.”
ARMED ROBBERY
WHAT IS ARMED ROBBERY?
The use of the word ‘armed’ in robbery, usually means that a person has in their possession a weapon which is used for the purpose of committing the offence. Furthermore, if a person has a weapon which is available for the purposes of committing a robbery, they may still be considered to be ‘armed’ by the courts even if they are not physically holding a weapon.
Case law has even gone as far to rule, that a replica pistol may be constituted as ‘arms’ as well.
The use of the word ‘armed’ in robbery, usually means that a person has in their possession a weapon which is used for the purpose of committing the offence. Furthermore, if a person has a weapon which is available for the purposes of committing a robbery, they may still be considered to be ‘armed’ by the courts even if they are not physically holding a weapon.
Case law has even gone as far to rule, that a replica pistol may be constituted as ‘arms’ as well.